Torri D. Metz, MD

home

authors

torri-d-metz-md

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a major cause of maternal morbidity and mortality. The estimated incidence of VTE during pregnancy and the postpartum period is 1 to 2 per 1,000 deliveries.

The risk of VTE is particularly high during the postpartum period and especially following cesarean delivery.

There is considerable variation in the approach to VTE prophylaxis in pregnancy, including following cesarean delivery. Recent guidelines by various professional organizations provide conflicting recommendations based on low-grade evidence, mainly from observational data. 

At present, the available VTE risk stratification tools used to decide for or against pharmacological prophylaxis have not been validated in women undergoing cesarean delivery. Individualization of care is recommended for women at very high risk of VTE.

Q| What are the current guidelines for VTE prophylaxis following cesarean delivery?

Several guidelines define risk factors for VTE, including those summarized in Table 1 from the American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP), Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (RCOG), and National Partnership for Maternal Safety (NPMS).

The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) recommends that all women undergoing a cesarean delivery receive mechanical prophylaxis with the use of pneumatic sequential compression devices started preoperatively and continued until the patient is ambulatory.

The use of combined pharmacological and mechanical prophylaxis may also be supported based on individual risk assessment. ACOG does not endorse any specific risk stratification guidelines. Hospitals are encouraged to evaluate women for VTE risk factors and to implement a prophylaxis protocol weighing benefits, harms, and cost-effectiveness. If VTE risk factors persist during the postpartum period, up to 6 weeks of pharmacological prophylaxis should be considered.

The ACCP suggests that the benefits of thromboprophylaxis outweigh potential harm when the absolute risk of VTE is 3% or higher.

 The presence of 1 major risk factor, 1 minor risk factor in the setting of an emergent cesarean delivery, or 2 or more minor risk factors suggests a VTE risk above 3%. 

For women undergoing cesarean delivery with no risk factors for VTE, ACCP recommends no prophylaxis other than early mobilization. 

In women at very high risk for VTE, combined pharmacological and mechanical prophylaxis is suggested. If VTE risk factors persist during the postpartum period, up to 6 weeks of prophylaxis is suggested.

The RCOG recommends thromboprophylaxis with low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) for 10 days after delivery should be considered for all women who have had cesarean sections and those having an elective cesarean section who have any additional risk factors.4 Prophylaxis with LMWH is recommended for 10 days following delivery in intermediate-risk women and for at least 6 weeks following delivery in high-risk women.

The NPMS recommends universal pneumatic compression devices for all women undergoing cesarean deliveries.

The addition of pharmacological prophylaxis may be considered for women at high risk of VTE based on the use of either the RCOG guidelines or the modified Caprini scoring system. Hospitals may consider providing pharmacological VTE prophylaxis to all women undergoing a cesarean delivery because of the challenges in consistently identifying women with VTE risk factors.

Q| Is there sufficient evidence to recommend one specific guideline over the other?

In general, all women with a previous episode of VTE require prophylactic doses of LMWH or unfractionated heparin (UFH) for at least 6 weeks postpartum. Women with no previous personal history of VTE but who have tested positive for one of the high-risk inherited thrombophilias (antithrombin III deficiency, homozygous Factor V Leiden or G20210A, or heterozygous for both Factor V Leiden and G20210A) or who have a low-risk thrombophilia should also receive pharmacological VTE prophylaxis following cesarean delivery. 

Women with a previous diagnosis of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome should receive prophylactic or therapeutic doses of heparin (depending on previous history of VTE) during the puerperium irrespective of mode of delivery.

The main discrepancy among current guidelines concerns pharmacologic prophylaxis for women with no history of VTE and no inherited or acquired thrombophilia. Recommendations differ in part because they are based on observational studies and expert opinion due to a lack of clinical trial data. 

This presents a challenge for determining the true incidence of VTE and accurately assessing the risk-benefit ratio of pharmacological prophylaxis following cesarean delivery. The potential benefit of pharmacological prophylaxis needs to be weighed against the potential for adverse outcomes associated with the intervention. 

For instance, the use of pharmacological VTE prophylaxis following cesarean delivery has been associated with increased rates of wound separation and wound hematomas. In the absence of adequately powered clinical trials, accurate calculations of the number needed to treat (NNT) and number needed to harm (NNH) are limited. 

However, the available evidence suggests that the NNH may be lower than the NNT in most scenarios, particularly in the absence of risk factors or the presence of only a minor risk factor. 

Further, administrative and retrospective data obtained from analysis of large databases may overestimate the incidence of VTE, resulting in a similar overestimation of the benefit of any intervention aimed at preventing it.

Another consideration in making recommendations is that the use of risk assessment models (eg, Caprini and Padua) to predict VTE following cesarean delivery has not been adequately studied. 

The authors of a recent study questioning their utility during the peripartum period suggest the establishment of a maternal clinical registry and more extensive research to identify optimal models with which to predict VTE risk in the obstetrical population.

At present, the available evidence to suggest that universal (or near universal) pharmacological VTE prophylaxis effectively reduces maternal mortality is limited.

 Any attributable benefit of universal pharmacological VTE prophylaxis after cesarean delivery in maternal mortality will likely be low due to the rarity of the event. 

A recent study reported only 1 maternal death from VTE among 465,880 women undergoing a cesarean delivery when all women received mechanical prophylaxis (eg, sequential compression devices).

Q| Which pharmacological agents are commonly used for prophylaxis of venous thromboembolism?

The two most common agents used for VTE prophylaxis are LMWH and UFH. Current guidelines recommend LMWH (eg, enoxaparin) as the first-line pharmacological agent.

Enoxaparin is not recommended in patients with significant renal dysfunction, defined as creatinine clearance less than 30 mL/min. 

Compared with UFH, enoxaparin has the advantage of better bioavailability, longer half-life, more predictable anticoagulation effect, less bleeding risks, and less risk of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and osteopenia. 

For prophylaxis purposes, the recommended enoxaparin dosage is typically 40 mg subcutaneously once a day. Obese women may require higher doses; however, the optimal dose is unknown. Some evidence supports the use of intermediate doses of enoxaparin (40 mg subcutaneously every 12 hours) for obese women.

UFH is a good choice in women with renal disease. Recommended prophylactic dosages range from 5000 to 10,000 units subcutaneously every 12 hours depending on gestational age (5000 units subcutaneously every 12 hours in the first trimester, 7500 units subcutaneously every 12 hours in the second trimester, and 10,000 units subcutaneously every 12 hours during the third trimester). 

In the postpartum period, doses of 5000 units subcutaneously every 8–12 hours are commonly utilized. There are insufficient data to recommend the use of new oral anticoagulants (eg, apixaban, rivaroxaban, dabigatran) during the postpartum period.

Q| When is the optimal time to start thromboembolism prophylaxis after a cesarean delivery?

Current ACOG guidelines recommend starting VTE mechanical prophylaxis with sequential compression devices preoperatively in all women undergoing a cesarean delivery.

The Society for Obstetric Anesthesia and Perinatology (SOAP) has addressed the optimal interval between neuraxial anesthesia and initiation of VTE pharmacological prophylaxis to prevent development of spinal or epidural hematomas.

Prophylactic doses of enoxaparin (40 mg subcutaneously every day) may be started postoperatively as soon as 4 hours after catheter removal but not earlier than 12 hours after the block was performed. Intermediate doses of enoxaparin (40 mg subcutaneously every 12 hours) and therapeutic doses may also be started as soon as 4 hours after catheter removal but not earlier than 24 hours after the block was performed. Prophylactic doses of UFH may be started as early as 1 hour after removal of the neuraxial catheter.

In addition to concerns about spinal hematomas, timing to start VTE prophylaxis should also consider the risk of postoperative bleeding. 

With prophylactic doses of anticoagulation, bleeding complications are usually mild and rarely result in life-threatening hemorrhage, unlike bleeding risks with the use of full-dose anticoagulation in the postoperative period. 

In cases with significant intraoperative bleeding complications, the decision of when to start pharmacological prophylaxis (if indicated) must be individualized, while recognizing that postpartum hemorrhage, blood transfusion, and prolonged surgery are risk factors for VTE. In these cases, initiation of UFH, which is reversible and has a shorter half-life, may be prudent.

VTE remains an important cause of maternal morbidity and mortality during pregnancy and the postpartum period. 

The use of mechanical prophylaxis sequential compression devices is an inexpensive, safe intervention and should be used in all women undergoing cesarean delivery until the woman is fully ambulatory. 

The decision to add pharmacological prophylaxis depends on the presence or absence of certain risk factors. Women with a previous personal history of deep venous thrombosis or pulmonary embolism and women with a personal history of an inherited thrombophilia should receive pharmacological prophylaxis following cesarean delivery. 

The use of universal or near-universal pharmacological prophylaxis for women undergoing cesarean delivery, other than those with a previous thrombosis or an inherited thrombophilia, cannot be recommended until further studies demonstrate that such a strategy is beneficial. 

Created in partnership with the Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine. SMFM was established in 1977 to “give Maternal-Fetal Medicine (MFM) physicians and scientists a place to share knowledge, research and clinical best practices in order to improve care for moms and babies.”

Rodger M. Pregnancy and venous thromboembolism: 'TIPPS' for risk stratification. Hematology American Society of Hematology Education Program 2014;2014:387-92.

American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 196: Thromboembolism in Pregnancy. Obstetrics and gynecology 2018;132:e1-e17.

Bates SM, Greer IA, Middeldorp S, Veenstra DL, Prabulos AM, Vandvik PO. VTE, thrombophilia, antithrombotic therapy, and pregnancy: Antithrombotic Therapy and Prevention of Thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest 2012;141:e691S-e736S.

Reducing the risk of venous thromboembolism during pregnancy and the puerperium. Green-top Guideline No. 37a. (Accessed February 4, 2019, at 

https://www.rcog.org.uk/en/guidelines-research-services/guidelines/gtg37a/

D'Alton ME, Friedman AM, Smiley RM, et al. National Partnership for Maternal Safety: Consensus Bundle on Venous Thromboembolism. Obstetrics and gynecology 2016;128:688-98.

Tran JP, Stribling SS, Ibezim UC, et al. Performance of Risk Assessment Models for Peripartum Thromboprophylaxis. Reprod Sci 2018:1933719118813197.

Bain E, Wilson A, Tooher R, Gates S, Davis LJ, Middleton P. Prophylaxis for venous thromboembolic disease in pregnancy and the early postnatal period. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews 2014:Cd001689.

Clark SL, Christmas JT, Frye DR, Meyers JA, Perlin JB. Maternal mortality in the United States: predictability and the impact of protocols on fatal postcesarean pulmonary embolism and hypertension-related intracranial hemorrhage. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology 2014;211:32.e1-9.

Leffert L, Butwick A, Carvalho B, et al. The Society for Obstetric Anesthesia and Perinatology Consensus Statement on the Anesthetic Management of Pregnant and Postpartum Women Receiving Thromboprophylaxis or Higher Dose Anticoagulants. Anesthesia and analgesia 2018;126:928-44.

Articles

The risk of venous thromboembolism is particularly high during the postpartum period and especially following cesarean delivery. 

Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine Consult Series #51: Thromboembolism prophylaxis for cesarean delivery

National Partnership for Maternal Safety recommendations for antepartum outpatient prophylaxis

Women with prior VTE-especially if the episode was associated with pregnancy or use of estrogen-containing oral contraceptives-are at increased risk for recurrent VTE during pregnancy or postpartum. VTE risk also is increased in women with high-risk thrombophilias. Women with prior VTE and low-risk thrombophilias also are at increased risk. These data led to clear recommendations from the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (

) for antepartum and postpartum prophylaxis for women with prior VTE and/or thrombophilias.

A simple step to reduce maternal death: Improve VTE prevention

National Partnership for Maternal Safety recommendations for postpartum prophylaxis after hospitalization for childbirth

Thromboprophylaxis is almost always initiated after vaginal delivery or cesarean, typically at least 6 hours later. This allows for safe administration of neuraxial analgesia or anesthesia and removal of a catheter. However, VTE may already have formed by that time, in which case, prophylaxis may be useless or less effective compared to when it is used prior to and during surgery. Another knowledge gap is the optimal duration of thromboprophylaxis. Heparin or low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) may be continued until the patient is ambulatory, until she is discharged from the hospital, through 10 days after delivery or 6 weeks after delivery.

 The relative merits of each time interval are uncertain. The same is true for various doses and drugs used for thromboprophylaxis. Although knowledge gaps exist, ACOG has a practice bulletin summarizing available regimens.

The authors report no potential conflicts of interest.

Inherited thrombophilias in pregnancy. ACOG Practice Bulletin Number 197. Obstet Gynecol. 2018;132:e18-34.

Thromboembolism in pregnancy. ACOG Practice Bulletin Number 196. Obstet Gynecol. 2018;132:e1-17.

The Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Reducing the risk of venous thromboembolism during pregnancy and the puerperium. Guideline No. 37a. London: RCOG; 2015.

Ob/gyns must be aware of the different treatment recommendations for various scenarios pre- and post-delivery.

NPMS recommendations: Antepartum vs postpartum prophylaxis

The death of a mother is a devastating obstetric complication. In 2015, there were an estimated 303,000 maternal deaths throughout the world,

which reflects a maternal mortality ratio of 216 per 100,000 live births. Maternal death is far less common in high-resource settings, but it still affects 12 per 100,000 live births.

In the United States in 2014, the maternal mortality ratio was 23.8 per 100,000 live births.

That is considerably higher than other countries with similar resources and represents a recent increase in maternal mortality.

Although the increase is largely due to increased ascertainment,

there is no doubt that it is possible to decrease maternal mortality in the United States.

Given the numerous causes of and risk factors for maternal death, often missing or vague available data in vital records, and variability among studies, it is difficult to precisely determine the proportion of deaths due to any single cause. Nonetheless, it is estimated that about 10% to 15% of maternal deaths in high-resource settings including the United States are due to venous thromboembolism (VTE).

VTE is an attractive target for reducing maternal deaths because, in theory, many are preventable. Indeed, in the UK, a concerted effort has been made to lower the rate of maternal death due to VTE. There, a comprehensive program was instituted involving better risk assessment and increased use of thromboprophylaxis.

The result was an apparent 50% reduction in maternal deaths due to VTE from 2006 to 2008 compared to 2003 to 2005.

In the United States, in contrast, the proportion of maternal deaths due to VTE remained relatively stable from 1987 through 2010.

Recent data indicate a maternal mortality ratio due to VTE of 1.01/100,000 in the UK versus 1.5/100,000 in the United States.

That may be a consequence of less aggressive recommendations for and implementation of VTE prophylaxis in the United States compared to the U.K., although it also may be due to chance. However, it is difficult to prove cause and effect since VTE, and especially death due to VTE is relatively uncommon. Thus, properly designed trials are difficult to conduct, and recommendations are largely based on expert opinion and theoretical benefits, rather than high-quality empirical evidence.

In addition, and despite prevention efforts, the rate of pregnancy-associated VTE may be increasing in the United States. For example, data from the Nationwide Inpatient Sample note that VTE associated with hospitalizations for childbirth increased 72% from 1998 to 2009.

This may be due to an increased prevalence of risk factors such as obesity, advanced maternal age, cesarean delivery and comorbid conditions such as diabetes and hypertension. 

Most maternal deaths associated with VTE occur after pulmonary embolism (PE). This is most often associated with cesarean delivery. However, recent data from the UK show that reductions in fatal PE can also occur in the antepartum period and after vaginal delivery.

Accordingly, prevention strategies must focus on both the antepartum and postpartum periods and after both vaginal and cesarean delivery. 

Recommendations for antepartum thromboprophylaxis

Some data exist with which to guide antepartum thromboprophylaxis. For example, women with prior VTE-especially if the episode was associated with pregnancy or use of estrogen-containing oral contraceptives-are at increased risk for recurrent VTE during pregnancy or postpartum. VTE risk also is increased in women with high-risk thrombophilias such as antithrombin deficiency, antiphospholipid syndrome, and homozygosity for the factor V Leiden or prothrombin G2010A mutations. Women with prior VTE and low-risk thrombophilias such heterozygosity for the factor V Leiden or prothrombin G2010A mutations also are at increased risk. These data led to clear recommendations from the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) for antepartum and postpartum prophylaxis for women with prior VTE and/or thrombophilias.

Less guidance is available for prevention of VTE during pregnancy in women with no prior history of or known risk factors for VTE. US guidelines (based on ACOG and American College of Chest Physicians [ACCP] recommendations) only advise using pharmacologic prophylaxis in women at highest risk for VTE.

In contrast, the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (RCOG) guidelines emphasize broad, risk factor-based assessment and widespread use of thromboprophylaxis. Their recommendations for antenatal and postpartum pharmacologic VTE prophylaxis are summarized in a “Green-top” guideline published in 2015 (Table 1).

These guidelines use a risk-scoring system to determine recommendations for prophylaxis with low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH). They account for less profound but more common risk factors such as obesity, maternal age > 35 years and smoking.

Pharmacologic thromboprophylaxis is typically accomplished with prophylactic doses of heparin or LMWH. Examples include 5,000 units twice daily of unfractionated heparin or a daily dose of LMWH such as 40 mg daily of enoxaparin. This is typically administered during pregnancy and through six weeks postpartum. Discussion of the timing of anticoagulant therapy peripartum and intrapartum is beyond the scope of this article but reviews are available.

Data are scant with which to guide thromboprophylaxis for vaginal or cesarean delivery. Most authorities including ACOG advise uniform and routine use of mechanical thromboprophylaxis placed prior to cesarean delivery, as well as encouragement of early ambulation.

Data from a large US-based health care corporation noted a reduction in maternal deaths from VTE after universal use of pneumatic compression devices at cesarean delivery.

There were seven deaths from 2000 to 2006 prior to use of the devices. After implementation of mechanical prophylaxis, there was only one VTE maternal death between 2007 and 2012. In contrast, data from the nationwide Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Pregnancy Mortality Surveillance System failed to show a meaningful reduction in maternal deaths due to VTE from 1987 to 2010.

However, it is unknown what percentage of cesareans in the United States used mechanical thromboprophylaxis during this time.

Although they are of unproven efficacy, pneumatic compression devices are now used for virtually all cesarean deliveries in many hospitals. There is relatively little downside, other than cost and inconvenience. The devices are easily placed in a timely fashion prior to scheduled cesareans when the risk of VTE is low. However, they may be difficult to place in a timely fashion for emergency cases, when the risk of VTE is often higher. In addition, effectiveness is uncertain and may be adversely influenced by the lower-extremity edema that often occurs at the end of pregnancy. Also, many women dislike the devices, compliance is imperfect, and they may hinder early ambulation.

A cost-effectiveness analysis noted that the cost for the devices is $39,545.00 for each quality-adjusted life year.

It would be ideal to obtain high-quality data regarding the true benefits of mechanical thromboprophylaxis. 

Data regarding pharmacologic thromboprophylaxis and delivery are also lacking. Thromboprophylaxis is almost always initiated after vaginal delivery or cesarean, typically at least six hours later. This allows for safe administration of neuraxial analgesia or anesthesia and removal of a catheter. However, VTE may already have formed by that time, in which case, prophylaxis may be useless or less effective compared to when it is used prior to and during surgery. Indeed, other than small pilot studies, there are no data from high-quality studies regarding the efficacy of thromboprophylaxis for cesarean delivery. Another knowledge gap is the optimal duration of thromboprophylaxis. Heparin or LMWH may be continued until the patient is ambulatory, until she is discharged from the hospital, through 10 days after delivery or 6 weeks after delivery.

The relative merits of each time interval are uncertain. The same is true for various doses and drugs used for thromboprophylaxis. Although knowledge gaps exist, ACOG has a practice bulletin summarizing available regimens.

As with mechanical prophylaxis, downsides include expense, inconvenience, and lack of compliance. In addition, these medications may irritate skin and are associated with an increased risk for complications such as wound separation.

Unfortunately, high-quality studies assessing the efficacy and safety of pharmacologic thromboprophylaxis are unlikely to be performed. Such studies would be difficult to accomplish given the expense, large sample size required and reluctance on the part of clinicians to not use prophylaxis despite unproven efficacy. 

We are currently faced with a dilemma in trying to balance the pros and cons of strategies intended to decrease VTE-associated maternal deaths in the absence of quality data. The desire to do everything we can that might work to reduce VTEs is understandable but theoretical benefits must be weighed against potential harms and costs. To address this issue, the National Partnership for Maternal Safety (NPMS) published a consensus bundle on VTE in 2016.

The bundle includes recommendations intended to reduce VTEs, and it considers the lack of available high-quality data. As with other safety bundles, it is composed of four action domains: readiness, recognition, response, and reporting. 

The readiness component involves establishment of risk assessment strategies or tools for several time points during pregnancy. These time points include the first prenatal visit, all antepartum admissions, immediately postpartum, and on discharge home after delivery. The Caprini and Padua risk scoring systems are highly predictive of VTE risk in surgical patients and can be modified for use during pregnancy.

Recognition refers to the recognition of maternal risk after routine screening at the four time points, or in other words, the “use of the tool.” Response involves thromboprophylaxis in “high-risk” women. Recommendations from the NPMS for antepartum and postpartum thromboprophylaxis are summarized in Tables 2 and 3. 

The last part of the bundle involves reporting and systems learning. Each institution should conduct audits of risk factors, use of screening tools and implementation of prevention strategies. Adverse events also should be tracked and reported. A goal is to make this a “core measure” for quality. The NPMS document acknowledges a paucity of quality data and uncertainty regarding the specific population warranting thromboprophylaxis.

Given the relatively low rate of pregnancy-associated VTE, indirect measures such as screening and prophylaxis may be preferable metrics to assess than actual VTEs.

Also, since most serious postpartum VTEs occur after the delivery hospitalization, it is important to implement a system to ascertain events through at least 6 weeks postpartum.

Along with prevention of VTE, prompt recognition and treatment of VTE, especially PE, can potentially reduce mortality. Diagnosis can be difficult during pregnancy owing to the preponderance of non-specific symptoms such as leg swelling and shortness of breath. Also, there is a reluctance to use imaging studies during pregnancy due to concerns for possible untoward fetal effects. Given the increased risk of VTE and PE associated with pregnancy, all symptoms of DVT and PE should be fully and promptly evaluated. Although useful in non-pregnant individuals, D-dimer levels are not advised for screening pregnant women for VTE.

A reasonable approach for evaluating possible PE is to start with a chest x-ray. If it is normal, ventilation perfusion scan is advised. If the x-ray is abnormal, then computed tomography pulmonary angiography is indicated.

This algorithm may be modified based on testing availability and expertise in each institution. When there is high suspicion for DVT or PE and imaging is not available or feasible (for example, a patient in labor), anticoagulation can be initiated presumptively until a definitive diagnosis can be made.

In summary, tactics to reduce maternal death from VTE should include recognition of risk and prevention, as well as prompt diagnosis and treatment. Specific protocols may vary among institutions but should utilize the guidelines put forth by ACOG, NPMS, the Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine, RCOG, ACCP and others. Most importantly, quality data are desperately needed to address the numerous knowledge gaps regarding VTE prevention. It is paramount to track the benefits and downsides of interventions in each institution and support the conduct of high-quality clinical trials regarding VTE prevention in pregnancy. 

The authors report no potential conflicts of interest with regard to this article.

Alkema L, Chou D, Hogan D, et al. Global, regional, and national levels and trends in maternal mortality between 1900 and 2015, with scenario-based projections to 2030: a systematic analysis by the UN Maternal Mortality Estimation Inter-Agency Group. 

Kochanek KD, Murphy SL, Xu J, Tejada-Vera B. Deaths: final data for 2014. 

MacDorman MF, Declercq E, Cabral H, Morton C. Is the United States Maternal Mortality Rate increasing? Disentangling trends from measurement issues. 

Kahn KS, Wojdyla D, Say L, et al. WHO analysis of causes of maternal death: a systematic review. 

Creanga AA, Berg CJ, Syverson C, et al. Pregnancy related mortality in the United States, 2006-2010. 

The Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Reducing the risk of venous thromboembolism during pregnancy and the puerperium. Guideline No. 37a. London: RCOG; 2015. 

Cantwell R, Clutton-Brock T, Cooper G, et al. Saving mothers’ lives: reviewing maternal deaths to make motherhood safer: 2006 – 2008. The Eighth report of the Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths in the United Kingdom.

Knight M, Tuffnell D, Kenyon S, et al. Saving lives, improving mothers care-surveillance of maternal deaths in the UK 2011-13 and lessons learned to inform maternity care from the UK and Ireland confidential enquiries into maternal deaths and morbidity 2009-13. Oxford (United Kingdom): National Perinatal epidemiology Unit, University of Oxford; 2015.

Ghaji N, Boulet SL, Tepper N, Hooper WC. Trends in venous thromboembolism among pregnancy-related hospitalizations. United States, 1994-2009. 

Callaghan WM, Creanga AA, Kuklina EV. Severe maternal morbidity among delivery and postpartum hospitalizations in the United States. 

Inherited thrombophilias in pregnancy. ACOG Practice Bulletin Number 197. 

Thromboembolism in pregnancy. ACOG Practice Bulletin Number 196. 

Bates SM, Greer IA, Middledorp S, et al. VTE, thrombophilia, antithrombotic therapy, and pregnancy: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. 

Clark SL, Christmas JT, Frye DR, et al. Maternal mortality in the United States: predictability and the impact of protocols on fatal postcesarean pulmonary embolism and hypertension-related intracranial hemorrhage. 

Brady MA, Carroll AW, Cheang KI, straight C, Chelmow D. Sequential compression device compliance in postoperative obstetrics and gynecology patients. 

Casele H, Grobman WA. Cost-effectiveness of thromboprophylaxis with intermittent pneumatic compression at cesarean delivery. 

Ferres MA, Olivarez SA, Trinh V, et al. Rate of wound complications with enoxaparin use among women at high risk for postpartum thrombosis. 

D’Alton ME, Friedman AM, Smiley RM, et al. National Partnership for Maternal Safety. Consensus bundle on venous thromboembolism. 

Grobman WA, Bailit JL, Rice MM, et al. Can differences in obstetric outcomes be explained by differences in the care provided? The MFMU Network APEX study. 

Van der Pol LM, Mairuhu ATA, Tromeur C, et al. Use of clinical prediction rules and D-dimer tests in the diagnostic management of pregnant patients with suspected acute pulmonary embolism. 

As rates of VTE in pregnancy are increasing in the United States, ob/gyns must be vigilant in identifying women at risk and promptly instituting measures recommended by ACOG and other organizations

Author | Torri D. Metz, MD

Articles

Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine Consult Series #51: Thromboembolism prophylaxis for cesarean delivery

NPMS recommendations: Antepartum vs postpartum prophylaxis

A simple step to reduce maternal death: Improve VTE prevention