Dr. Rosen is an assistant professor of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.

Monica Rosen, MD

Part 1 of this series on pediatric adolescent gynecologic emergencies focuses on cases about premenarchal bleeding, urethral prolapse, and the cause of a mysterious vaginal discharge. 

Monica Woll Rosen, MD, is a clinical assistant professor of obstetrics and gynecology at the University of Michigan Medical School in Ann Arbor. She specializes in pediatric and adolescent gynecology.

Elisabeth H. Quint, MD, is a clinical professor in obstetrics and gynecology at the University of Michigan Medical School in Ann Arbor. She is also fellowship director of the Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology Fellowship and assistant dean for clinical faculty.

Young patients with gynecologic concerns may present to a general obstetrician-gynecologist as their first local contact. But prior to surgical intervention in a child, consultation with or referral to a pediatric and adolescent gynecologist in an academic medical center may be indicated. This review presents several cases of adolescents with genital and pelvic pain, with guidance for work-up and treatment.

You are called to evaluate a 12-year-old girl who fell on the balance beam during a gymnastics class. Her legs landed on either side of the beam. She is unable to void and is in tremendous pain. She was given several doses of pain medication but she continues to experience severe pain (

Figure 1. A 12-year-old girl with vulvar hematoma 

Credit: Collection of Monica Woll Rosen, MD, University of Michigan

This patient has extensive vulvar hematoma. Nonobstetric vulvar hematomas are rare, accounting for only 3.7% of all vulvar hematomas.

 They can occur from blunt trauma due to a fall, foreign body insertion, sexual assault, saddle injury, or intercourse. The rich vascular supply from the pudendal vessel branches makes this site vulnerable to hematoma formation.

A hematoma can be managed conservatively unless the hematoma is expanding, the skin is necrotic, or the patient is in too much pain.

 Ultrasound, CT, or MRI can be used to investigate the size, site, and expansion of the hematoma. Cases requiring surgical management involve an incision, evacuation of blood, and ligation of bleeding vessels.

Because this patient’s hematoma prohibited her from voiding, she needed a Foley catheter placed. Her urine was evaluated for hematuria. Because of her extensive hematoma and continued pain despite medication, she required an exam under anesthesia to assess the extent of her injury, insertion of the Foley catheter, and incision and drainage of the hematoma.

A 13-year-old girl presents to the emergency department with several days of worsening vulvar pain that is now severe. A few days ago, she developed a runny nose, fever, and sore throat. She otherwise has a negative review of systems. She is having trouble urinating because of the vulvar pain and has dysuria when she does urinate. Today she noticed a thick, yellow discharge in her underwear. On exam you notice several large painful ulcerations (

Aphthous or Lipshütz ulcers. Credit: Collection of Monica Woll Rosen, MD, University of Michigan

Aphthous or Lipschütz ulcers are acute vulvar ulcers that occur mainly in non–sexually active girls and are thought to be viral in nature.

 They commonly appear during or following a prodromal viral illness.

 have been associated with the ulcers, the causative virus often cannot be identified. There have been recent case reports of vulvar ulcers following a COVID-19 infection6 or after receiving the COVID-19 vaccine.

A patient may have black, necrotic, shallow, or deep ulcers in the labia minora or majora.

 There can be overlying purulent discharge. When assessing any ulcers it is important to evaluate for underlying sexually transmitted infections, such as herpes simplex. Other considerations include Crohn disease with multiple tracks and ulceration or Behçet disease, which presents with recurrent vulvar ulcers in conjunction with recurring oral ulcers.

Treatment for aphthous ulcers is supportive, as it is a self-limiting condition. Topical lidocaine gel can be used for pain control, and a topical clobetasol ointment can be used twice daily.

If a patient is severely affected, an oral steroid taper may be considered, as well as an admission for intravenous pain control. If the patient cannot void because of dysuria, a Foley catheter should be placed.

An 11-year-old girl presents after track practice with severe, unilateral right lower quadrant pain. Her last menstrual period was 3 weeks ago. The pain is sharp and radiates to her back. She has associated nausea and vomiting. On exam, she has rebound tenderness and guarding of her lower abdomen. On a pelvic ultrasound, she has a 6-cm simple cyst and a normal appendix. What do you do next?

Arrow shows torsed infundibulopelvic ligament.

Credit: Collection of Monica Woll Rosen, MD, University
of Michigan

This patient most likely is experiencing ovarian and/or tubal torsion 

. Ovarian torsion accounts for 2.7% of gynecologic emergencies.

 It occurs when the ovary twists on its attachments, which causes decreased blood flow and eventually leads to necrosis. Ovarian and paraovarian cysts, increased length of ovarian ligaments, and enlarged ovaries are risk factors for this condition. A patient is typically evaluated with an ultrasound to assess for a mass and blood flow to the ovary.

Ovarian torsion can be difficult to diagnose preoperatively—the differential includes appendicitis, hemorrhagic cyst, ovarian rupture, and other bowel etiologies. Absent Doppler flow to the ovary suggests torsion, but torsion may be present even with normal flow. 

A recent study of 87 girls with suspected ovarian torsion found that a preoperative diagnosis was confirmed in 48% of postmenarchal patients.

Treatment involves detorsion of the ovary when possible and cystectomy to prevent recurrence.

 There is limited indication for oophorectomy. Detorsion with cystectomy can almost always be done, regardless of ovarian size. There is insufficient evidence to dictate oophoropexy, although this may be considered, particularly in the case of recurrent torsion.

A 14-year-old girl presents to the emergency department with significant abdominal pain. She is premenarchal but has had pelvic cramping for the past 6 to 9 months. She has Tanner stage V breasts and genitalia. On pelvic exam, there is a bulging hymen with a blue hue (

On rectal exam, there is a large anterior bulge immediately inside her rectal opening. On ultrasound, you see a large mass and have difficulty distinguishing the uterus or ovaries. What is your diagnosis?

This presentation and exam are consistent with an imperforate hymen, which occurs in 0.05% to 0.1% of girls.

Abdominal pain at the time of expected menarche is the most common presenting symptom of this condition (54.2%), followed by urinary retention (20.3%) and dysuria (9.7%).

Of note, this condition can and should potentially be diagnosed in the neonatal nursery, as maternal estrogen allows easy visualization of the vaginal introitus. If the neonate is asymptomatic and voiding without difficulty, surgical management can be deferred until puberty. 

More typical is a missed diagnosis until after menarche. Surgical incision of the hymen is then indicated to relieve the backup of menstrual blood. 

Traditionally, this procedure was performed using a cruciate incision, but many providers now use a circular incision to open the hymen. It is important to suture with interrupted stitches so as not to constrict the hymen. This heals very well and should not recur or cause stenosis. No postoperative dilation is needed. Hormonal suppression of menses may be considered until surgery can be performed. This condition, although urgent, is not emergent, particularly if the diagnosis is in question.

Vaginal agenesis also can present with primary amenorrhea and occasional pain due to obstructed uterine remnants. However, there will usually be some hymenal remnants visible on exam and no bulge will be felt on rectal examination. Further imaging with ultrasound followed by MRI is the next step in distinguishing this condition. Other rare obstructing anomalies include a transverse vaginal septum or cervical agenesis.

A 13-year-old girl presents with significant cyclical abdominal pain and amenorrhea. She has Tanner stage V breasts and genitalia. Her external genital exam is completely normal with an appropriate hymenal opening. There is no bulge on the perineum. A small cotton swab placed through the hymen stops at 4 cm. On rectal exam you feel a bulge anteriorly, approximately 4 cm into the rectal canal. Ultrasound reveals a large blood-filled cavity, so you obtain an MRI (

. MRI of a 13-year-old girl with transverse vaginal septum. 

This scenario is most consistent with a transverse vaginal septum. The septum can be located at different levels of the vagina, but external genitalia appear normal. Septa can vary in thickness, with whole segments of the vagina undeveloped.

Because cases of transverse septa are rare and difficult to repair, they should be managed at tertiary centers by experienced pediatric and adolescent gynecologists or other gynecological surgeons. 

Surgery is usually performed vaginally, with assistance abdominally or laparoscopically. Surgery involves resection of the septum, which relieves the obstruction, followed by either a simple pull-through vaginoplasty or by using a skin or buccal graft to cover the defect.

It is imperative that patients perform patient-led vaginal dilation after surgery. A recent study showed that of 21 patients who underwent transverse septum resections and had a postoperative complication of vaginal stenosis or scarring, 14 (56%) either did not dilate afterward or did not dilate correctly.

Therefore, when a transverse septum is diagnosed, menstrual suppression is usually initiated until a patient is old enough to dilate on her own.

The cases above outline gynecological situations and emergencies that are unique to children and adolescents. Pediatric patients may need an exam under anesthesia to thoroughly evaluate anatomy or vaginal complaints. When uncertainties exist, and especially prior to surgical intervention in a child, consider consulting with a gynecologist experienced in pediatric and
adolescent gynecology.

1. Burnham A, Cooke-Barber J, Thacker S, Evans D, Carney D, Boswell W. Non-obstetric vulvar/paravaginal hematoma in an adolescent female with scleroderma: an opportunity for intimate partner violence intervention. 

. 2020;1(4):211-215. doi:10.36518/2689-0216.1043

2.Kim MS, Lee HJ, Joo E, Kang S, Lee MH, Kim HC. Management of non-obstetric traumatic vulvar haematoma: a retrospective review of 33 cases.

. 2021:1-4. doi:10.1080/01443615.2021.1960289

3.Vismara SA, Lava SAG, Kottanattu L, et al. Lipschütz’s acute vulvar ulcer: a systematic review. 

. 2020;179(10):1559-1567. doi:10.1007/s00431-020-03647-y

4.Lorenzo CV, Robertson WS. Genital ulcerations as presenting symptom of infectious mononucleosis. 

. 2005;18(1):67-68. doi:10.3122/jabfm.18.1.67

5.Martin JM, Godoy R, Calduch L, Villalon G, Jordá E. Lipschütz acute vulval ulcers associated with primary cytomegalovirus infection. 

. 2008;25(1):113-115. doi:10.1111/j.1525-1470.2007.00597.x

6.Krapf JM, Casey RK, Goldstein AT. Reactive non-sexually related acute genital ulcers associated with COVID-19. 

. 2021;14(5):e242653. doi:10.1136/bcr-2021-242653

7.Wojcicki AV, O’Flynn, O’Brien KL. Vulvar aphthous ulcer in an adolescent after Pfizer-BioNTech (BNT162b2) COVID-19 vaccination. 

. 2022;35(2):167-170. doi:10.1016/j.jpag.2021.10.005

8. Rosman IS, Berk DR, Bayliss SJ, White AJ, Merritt DF. Acute genital ulcers in nonsexually active young girls: case series, review of the literature, and evaluation and management recommendations. 

. 2012;29(2):147-153. doi:10.1111/j.1525-1470.2011.01589.x

9. Bandow GD. Diagnosis and management of vulvar ulcers. 

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10. Childress KJ, Dietrich JE. Pediatric ovarian torsion. 

. 2017;97(1):209-221. doi:10.1016/j.suc.2016.08.008

11.Melcer Y, Maymon R, Pekar-Zlotin M, Pansky M, Smorgick N. Clinical and sonographic predictors of adnexal torsion in pediatric and adolescent patients.

. 2018;53(7):1396-1398. doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2017.07.011

12.Dasgupta R, Renaud E, Goldin AB, et al. Ovarian torsion in pediatric and adolescent patients: a systematic review.

. 2018;53(7):1387-1391. doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2017.10.053

13.Lee KH, Hong JS, Jung HJ, et al. Imperforate hymen: a comprehensive systematic review. 

14.Brander EPA, Vincent S, McQuillan SK. Transverse vaginal septum resection: technique, timing, and the utility of dilation. A scoping review of the literature. 

. 2022;35(1):65-72. doi:10.1016/j.jpag.2021.09.002

15.Wancura M, McCracken JM, Steen E, Cosgriff-Hernandez E, Keswani S, Hakim JCE. Emerging technologies in pediatric gynecology: new paradigms in women’s health care. 

. 2019;31(5):309-316. doi:10.1097/GCO.0000000000000563

Articles

Part 2 in a series on emergencies in pediatric and adolescent gynecology

Managing genital and pelvic pain in young patients

Gynecologic conditions that are common in girls and adolescents are often not seen in adult patients or can present differently, creating a dilemma for the provider.

 Because these are relatively rare occurrences, this review is designed to guide a general obstetrician-gynecologist through several case-based scenarios of premenarchal vaginal bleeding. These scenarios are intended to give the general gynecologist guidance, but consultation with or referral to a pediatric and adolescent gynecologist in an academic medical center may be indicated.

: A 4-year-old presents with 1 day of spots of blood in her underwear that the mother noticed when helping her daughter change. The child denies any falls; does not complain of pain, dysuria, or itching; and has been supervised by her mother all day. 

Discussion:In this patient, the exam shows whitening of her vulva (classically, in a “figure of 8” distribution that can surround the anus) in addition to several areas of subepithelial hemorrhage (“blood blisters”) and scarring around the clitoral hood, consistent with lichen sclerosus (LS)—a chronic inflammatory skin disease that primarily presents in the anogenital region. It most commonly affects females and may occur premenarche or after menopause, likely due to lower estrogen levels.

 The disease is estimated to occur in 1 in 900 prepubertal girls.

 The pathogenesis of LS is multifactorial and can be associated with other autoimmune conditions including thyroiditis, alopecia, pernicious anemia, and vitiligo.

 Occasionally, LS may look like significant bruising and has been mistaken for abuse.

 The whiteness of the surrounding skin and the presence of scarring should alert the provider to the correct diagnosis.

 Although the association of vulvar cancer has been made in adults, this has not been described in children. Treatment is indicated to alleviate symptoms—usually itching or pain—and to prevent further scarring. Ultrapotent topical corticosteroids are often used initially with tapering to lower-potency ointment for maintenance; tacrolimus may be used as second-line therapy.

It is important to note that, besides trauma-related bleeding (both accidental and nonaccidental/abuse), most of the possible reasons for premenarchal vaginal bleeding are not true emergencies; however, they often present as such due to anxiety in the patient
and caregiver.

The differential diagnosis list for premenarchal vaginal and vulvar bleeding is long 

, with trauma and precocious puberty as the diagnoses that initially need to be ruled out. Vulvar concerns and urologic factors are the most encountered etiologies.

The physical exam of the premenarchal girl who presents with bleeding should always include a breast exam, as any breast development prior to age 7 is cause for concern for precocious puberty.

After an abdominal exam, a vulvar exam should be attempted. This can be more complicated than it would be in an adolescent or adult patient. First, the provider must explain the plan to the patient and parent, including that only an external exam will likely be performed. A speculum examination of a prepubertal girl in the office is never indicated. For a very anxious girl, it is helpful to consider having a child life specialist at the exam if feasible.

The child should sit in a lithotomy position, either on the parent’s lap or in frog-leg position on the exam table, with the desired parent or caregiver by her side. Stirrups are usually not used, as this can make the child uncomfortable. Gentle, lateral traction on the labia majora should be used for vulvar visualization. Gently gripping the labia majora and pulling anteriorly allows the edges of the hymen to be seen.

 Deep breathing should be encouraged, as this helps to open the vagina and further enables the hymenal edges to be more easily appreciated.

 The child should always be informed of the examiner’s actions prior to every maneuver.

If there is a need to look deeper into the vagina or if the child is more comfortable on her abdomen, the child can lie in a prone knee-chest position. In this position, the child lies on her knees with her buttocks elevated and her head resting on the table. Her arms can be positioned above her head or by her side. An otoscope can be used to see inside the lower vagina. Topical lidocaine jelly may be helpful with this exam.

With a similar story but different exam, this patient could also have had a urethral prolapse 

, which has an incidence of 1 in 3000 premenarchal girls.10 The most common presentation is vaginal bleeding, as the prolapsed tissue can be friable; pain may also occur.

 This happens when there is a lack of urethral support, enabling the urethral mucosa to prolapse and form a friable mass, and is more common in Black girls. The distinction between urethral prolapse and a vaginal mass or tumor can be facilitated by observing the child voiding on a bedpan; urine exits through the center of the prolapsed urethra, and anterior to a vaginal mass. Sitzbaths and topical estrogen are the mainstays of treatment; surgical intervention is rarely necessary if necrosis is present.

: A 5-year-old girl presents with foul-smelling bloody vaginal discharge that she has had for 1 week. Based on a normal vulvar exam, except for purulent discharge, you diagnose vulvovaginitis and treat her with oral antibiotics for 7 days. The discharge disappears but returns when the antibiotic course is complete. What is the most likely diagnosis and treatment?

: When discharge persists despite antibiotics, there is suspicion for a foreign body. Foreign bodies occur in up to 18% of girls with bleeding and discharge.

 Until the foreign body is removed, the discharge or bleeding will likely continue. The most common foreign body is toilet paper, although all manner of objects may be intentionally placed in the vagina by the child. It may be hard to see the foreign body in clinic on the exam, even in a knee-chest position. If the foreign body can be easily seen at the introitus, it can be carefully removed with a small instrument. A rectal exam may aid in palpating a firm object, and the object can sometimes be removed by “milking” it toward the introitus. Again, lidocaine jelly may be helpful.

Options for removal of a deeper or nonvisible foreign body include a lavage or irrigation in an office setting, office vaginoscopy or irrigation with an office hysteroscope (Endosee; CooperSurgical). This choice is based on patient anxiety, tolerance of the initial examination, and family preference. If the decision is a clinic lavage, child life assistance can be invaluable. Before performing a lavage, the gynecologist can apply topical lidocaine jelly to the hymen for comfort. With the patient in a frog-leg position, a small pediatric feeding tube or foley is attached to a 20-mL syringe of warm saline. The catheter tube is passed through the hymenal opening and irrigation of the vagina is initiated. Some water pressure may be required to help loosen the foreign body. During irrigation of the vagina, touching the hymen should be avoided. A small foreign object may exit the vagina with this technique.

If an office exam is not desired, pelvic imaging can be obtained, although this does not always show the foreign body.

 A vaginoscopy under general anesthesia using a pediatric cystoscope can be performed to better visualize the vagina and the foreign body. With vaginoscopy, the labia majora can be held closed to allow for vaginal distension and better visualization. Common culprits are toilet paper or cotton balls 

With premenarchal vaginal bleeding, it is important to remember a rare reproductive system malignancy: embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma—also known as sarcoma botryoides.

 This malignancy involves the vagina, uterus, bladder, and urethra and typically presents with the passage of grape-like lesions and/or vaginal bleeding or discharge. Ninety percent of these tumors occur before a child turns 5 years of age, with most occurring before age 2. Growth is rapid and treatment involves a combination of surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation, decided upon using a multidisciplinary team approach.

 Fortunately there are high cure rates, so early detection is imperative.

You are paged urgently to the emergency department to see an 8-year-old girl who reports falling on the side of the bathtub an hour ago. She reports pain in her genital area after straddling the tub, along with some vaginal spotting. What do you do next?

Discussion: This girl has suffered a straddle injury. Straddle injuries are the most common gynecologic injury in this age group and are usually the result of blunt trauma,

 which occurs when soft tissue is compressed against bone, causing bruising and superficial lacerations. Hymenal involvement
is rare.

In this case, the provider should first assess the patient’s stability, then take a history. There may be concern for nonaccidental trauma, so this should include the exact circumstances of how the trauma occurred and if it was witnessed. If possible, the provider should interview the child alone if she is of an appropriate age. On examination of the vulva, it is important to specifically evaluate whether the injury fits the history that was given. The hymen should be assessed to see if it is involved. In a typical straddle injury on a nonsharp surface, a hymenal laceration is uncommon; therefore further evaluation of the circumstances of this trauma must occur, possibly with the help of a child protection team or social worker.

In findings from recent studies, 1 in 5 girls are estimated to experience sexual abuse during childhood.

 It is important to remember, however, that most children who are evaluated for suspected sexual abuse will not have any signs of injury; minor injuries can heal quickly, and bruising, abrasions, and lacerations are rare in children examined more than 72 hours after experiencing abusive trauma.

If there is significant bleeding, irrigating with warm water may help delineate the extent of the trauma. Applying topical lidocaine prior to the exam can also be helpful, although it may sting on an open wound. An exam under anesthesia with possible vaginoscopy should be considered for any of the following: the patient is unable to tolerate an exam, vital signs are unstable, the extent of the injury or laceration cannot be appreciated at the bedside, there is active bleeding, or the pain is not responding to appropriate measures.

This patient’s hymen was annular and no hymenal tear or injury was noted. She had a small laceration below the labium minus that became hemostatic without repair. In this instance, her injury fit her history, her parents had observed her accident, and abuse was not suspected. Treatment was supportive, as she did not require a laceration repair. An ice pack applied intermittently may be helpful; a package of frozen food, such as peas, can be wrapped in cloth and will conform to the vulvar area.

Although patients and caregivers often perceive the cases described above as true crises, many such patients may present to a general obstetrician-gynecologist in an office setting. When performing an exam on children, having them adopt the frog-leg or knee-chest position can reduce their anxiety and make them feel more at ease. When in doubt, consider consulting with a gynecologist experienced in pediatric gynecology. 

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2. Powell JJ, Wojnarowska F. Lichen sclerosus. 

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5. Simms-Cendan J, Hoover K, Marathe K, Tyler K. NASPAG clinical opinion: diagnosis and management of lichen sclerosis in pediatric and adolescent patients. 

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6. Alaniz VI, Rosen M, Mohr B, Markman L, Quint EH. 4-year-old girl · genital discomfort and dysuria · clitoral hood swelling · blood blister on the labia minora · Dx? 

7. Craighill MC. Pediatric and adolescent gynecology for the primary care pediatrician. 

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8. Fishman A, Paldi E. Vaginal bleeding in premenarchal girls: a review

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9. French A, Emans SJ. Office evaluation of the child and adolescent. In: Emans SJ, Laufer MR, DiVasta A, eds

Goldstein’s Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology

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10. Ballouhey Q, Galinier P, Gryn A, Grimaudo A, Pienkowski C, Fourcade L. Benefits of primary surgical resection for symptomatic urethral prolapse in children. 

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11. Fernandes ET, Dekermacher S, Sabadin MA, Vaz F. Urethral prolapse in children. 

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15. Pommert L, Bradley W. Pediatric gynecologic cancers

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Part 1 in a series on emergencies in pediatric and adolescent gynecology

Have no fear! Premenarchal vaginal bleeding

Oral contraceptive pills are the most commonly used method of hormonal contraception in the United States. According to the National Survey of Family Growth conducted in 2015-2017, 80.5% of reproductive-aged women who had ever been sexually active had used oral contraceptive pills (OCPs) at some point. 

A survey of reproductive-aged women who have ever been sexually active found that 12.6% currently use pills.

There are two general types of OCPs—combined oral contraceptives (COCs), which contain both ethinyl estradiol (EE) and progestin, and progestin-only pills (POPs). Current COCs offer a range of doses and progestins to choose from.

COCs are a moderately effective method of contraception. They have a perfect use failure rate of <1% and a typical use failure rate of 9%.

 Several clinical trials have quoted failure rates of POPs between 1-13% in the first year.

Little data is available directly comparing the efficacy of different types of progestins; however, a few studies suggest no difference.5,6 It is likely that typical use failure rates are higher in POP users due to the strict dosing timeframe, including recommendations to take the pill within a 3-hour window.

EE and progestin each work separately, as well as synergistically, to provide contraceptive benefit. EE mainly works by suppressing the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from the pituitary, which hinders folliculogenesis. 

It is also suggested that EE causes endometrial edema, which affects implantation. EE has an added benefit of stabilizing the endometrium, which reduces spotting—a favorable effect. As EE potentiates the effects of progestin, smaller doses of progestin may be used in COCs.

Progestin works in three major ways: 1) it suppresses GnRH release from the hypothalamus, decreasing LH and FSH release; 2) it prevents the LH surge from the pituitary, which prevents ovulation; and 3) it thickens cervical mucus, which impedes sperm entry into the uterus. 

There may be some inhibition of peristalsis and tubal mobility as well. Progestin causes endometrial atrophy, which impairs implantation. Each progestin has a different potency and dose for which it blocks ovulation. POPs rely on these multiple mechanisms to prevent pregnancy.

Although oral contraceptives are a great choice for many women, it is important to understand the conditions that may increase risk for the user. We will outline some of the risks below and the CDC Medical Eligibility Criteria chart can be referenced for more information.

It is important to remember that the risks and benefits must be weighed for each woman individually and that in most cases, pregnancy is more dangerous than pill use. 

In patients who have conditions in which pregnancy would increase their risk of adverse health outcomes (Table 1), long-acting reversible contraception (LARC) may be the best choice to avoid unintended pregnancy.10 It is also important to review a patient’s medication history, as there may be drug interactions that reduce efficacy of COCs and POPs.

EE is pro-coagulable and is contraindicated in a number of situations. Progestin also has risks to the user. Providers should screen for personal or family history of venous thromboembolism, as this increases coagulation risk in COC users. 

Additionally, because of hypercoagulability in the postpartum state, COCs should not be used until 6 weeks after childbirth. Women who smoke and are over age 35, women with migraine with aura, or those who have uncontrollable hypertension or vascular disease are at increased risk of stroke and should not use estrogen-containing methods.

There are self-screening tools available to check for COC eligibility, such as the one used in a study by Grossman et al, which showed a sensitivity of 83.2% and specificity of 88.8% in patients using the survey to determine true contraindications to COC use.

 These tools can be helpful to both providers and patients, particularly as we increase use of telemedicine (Table 2).

As with any medical decision, it is exceptionally important to utilize shared decision-making in choosing the right contraceptive method for each patient, which should improve satisfaction, encourage compliance, and reduce unintended pregnancy. 

Shared decision-making involves the patient and provider working together to make a decision through discussion of all options while taking patient preference into account.

Because there are many contraceptive options available, it is important to discuss values (including the acceptability of an unplanned pregnancy if there is a contraceptive failure), beliefs, dosing frequency, financial considerations, and risks and benefits of each method. 

Other considerations include how often women want to have withdrawal bleeding, and desired benefits such as improvement in dysmenorrhea, acne, and mood symptoms. All women should be provided with a multiple-month prescription to improve medication adherence.

As with any method, there are side effects of COCs and POPs that are important to discuss with patients as they decide which method is best for them. Of women who have ever discontinued using COCs or POPs, 34% reported that they were dissatisfied and 64.4% stopped due to side effects.

Some common side effects to discuss with women are breast tenderness, nausea, bloating, and breakthrough bleeding—all of which often improve or completely resolve after the first several months.

 Women may not always discuss their choice to stop taking COCs or POPs, making it essential for clinicians to ask about the experience of past side effects, as well as to provide preventive guidance about the possibility of side effects before starting a new method.

Once a woman and her provider have decided on using COCs, there are multiple options. Patients desiring a withdrawal bleed may prefer a pill pack with monthly placebo pills, while patients desiring fewer menses prefer continuous use without placebo pills and may opt for extended cycle use. 

Additionally, providers may identify other co-existing conditions that may be treated with COCs such as acne, undesired facial hair growth, bloating, and/or headaches. COCs can also help reduce risk of ovarian cysts, fibroids, and benign breast disease.

As mentioned earlier, all COCs have a progestin and EE component and doses differ by pill type. COCs have a range of EE between 10-35 mcg. 

A systematic review showed higher discontinuation rates for COCs with lower doses of EE, due to side effects such as breakthrough bleeding. To reduce estrogenic risks, it is reasonable to start at 20 mcg EE and increase if necessary,15 although for adolescents, data supports using a dose of 30 mcg EE or greater as lower doses of EE have been associated with impaired bone acquisition.

Providers should consider the progestin component of the COC, or which progestin to use on its own in a POP, as this may result in undesired side effects.

Some progestins are noted to have androgen-like effects, with users reporting oily skin, facial hair growth, or acne. Of note, all COCs have been shown to help with acne, but it is reasonable to choose a pill with a less androgen-like progestin and/or higher estrogen content if this is a concern.

First-generation progestins have a lower potency and half-life, which can result in breakthrough bleeding. While second-generation progestins are more potent with a longer half-life, they may have an androgen-like effect. Third-generation progestins maintain a high potency but have lower androgen-like effects. 

Some third-generation formulations are even approved to treat mild to moderate acne. Finally, the only fourth-generation progestin, drospirenone, has both anti-mineralocorticoid and anti-androgenic properties and is newly available in a progestin-only pill.

 It has an improved bleeding profile while matching COCs in efficacy, as well as extending the missed-pill window to 12 hours for ease of use23 (Table 3).

Many of the common side effects of COCs will resolve on their own in the first few months. Thus, in the absence of severe side effects, patients should be encouraged to continue their pills for an initial 3-month interval. If these side effects continue or are particularly bothersome, Table 4 shows some options providers can use to approach them.

In addition to bleeding patterns and progestin options, COCs can be monophasic or multiphasic. We recommend that most providers start with a monophasic preparation for ease of use and ability to extend to continuous use, although some data show that triphasic preparations—specifically those with newer progestins—help reduce acne, irregular bleeding, and menorrhagia.

Non-contraceptive benefits: dysmenorrhea and menorrhagia

In addition to contraception, COCs have non-contraceptive benefits that can be advantageous to patients. One of these benefits is helping to improve menstruation, reduce pain, and improve blood loss. Dysmenorrhea is the most common menstrual symptom complaint, affecting up to 90% of women.

COCs have been shown to reduce dysmenorrhea by 60%, and in those with severe dysmenorrhea even further (90%). This reduces absences for school or work, as well as a patient’s need for pain medication. In women who suffer from dysmenorrhea, it can be especially helpful to be on extended or continuous COC preparations to further decrease pain.

 The desogestrel-only POP has also been shown to help improve dysmenorrhea.

Menorrhagia is less common, yet still problematic, for patients, as it can lead to iron-deficiency anemia. COCs are particularly helpful for normalizing bleeding patterns and decreasing both amount and duration of bleeding. 

However, other forms of contraception, such as hormonal intrauterine devices, can have similar effects—enhancing the need for shared decision-making with a patient when deciding which hormonal method is right for her.

Additional benefits to COCs include the ability to allow a woman to predict her bleeding episodes and skip them if desired. While older generations of POPs often caused abnormal bleeding patterns in patients, new drospirenone-only pills have a more favorable bleeding profile.

COCs can also improve premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD). A study looking at both POPs and COCs and their effect on premenstrual mood found that use of either one of these pills did not affect mood in over 71% of women. The remaining women were split as to whether their mood was improved or worsened. 

Oral contraceptive pills are a popular choice for many; providers should understand the options to guide patients effectively.

Monica Rosen, MD

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